Soviet people

How the ‘Mexican miracle’ kickstarted the modern US–Mexico drugs trade

Retrieved on:

星期三, 四月 10, 2024

The flow of cheap and deadly fentanyl over the border into the US has also fuelled an opioid epidemic that has killed over 1 million Americans since 2000.

Key Points:

The flow of cheap and deadly fentanyl over the border into the US has also fuelled an opioid epidemic that has killed over 1 million Americans since 2000.
It is a dark side to the so-called “Mexican miracle” that transformed the country’s economy between the 1940s and 1970s.
Stimulated by the Mexican and US governments’ promotion of infrastructure improvements and mass migration, the drug trade fuelled further lawful economic development throughout the country.

Cops, cartels and cash crops

Many of Durango’s battled-scarred and poverty-stricken former miners adapted to the national and global turbulence by turning to opium poppies, a profitable (and since 1920, illegal) cash crop.
Sap from opium poppies provides the raw material for drugs like morphine and heroin.
In response, US officials like Harry J. Anslinger promoted a “crusade” against the drug trade on both sides of the border.
In 1944, a joint US–Mexican expedition uncovered the largest opium plantation ever discovered in Mexico: the size of 325 football pitches.

Cold war Mexico

As the second world war gave way to the cold war, Latin American countries (often with US financial assistance) promoted urbanisation, industrialisation, infrastructural expansion, population growth and transnational economic integration.
Between 1950 and 1970, Mexico’s one-party state invested massively in public services and industrial and agricultural development.
But they helped connect the poppy fields of Durango to the rest of northern Mexico and the US border too.

The ‘heroin highway’

It consolidated Durango’s importance as a Mexican drug-production centre and transformed Chicago into the biggest heroin-trafficking hub on the continent.
The cash that trafficking organisations earned wholesaling heroin in the US was reinvested locally in everything from cattle ranches to construction companies and even an airline.

Instead, these were completely intertwined with the economic growth, infrastructure development and mass migration that characterised the Mexican miracle.
The story of the modern US–Mexican drug trade is not just about brutal violence and lives cut tragically short.

Nathaniel Morris received part of the funding for this research from the Leverlhulme Trust. He is affiliated with the Mexico & Central America Program of Noria Research.

Is Russia looking to put nukes in space? Doing so would undermine global stability and ignite an anti-satellite arms race

Retrieved on:

星期六, 二月 17, 2024

Fresh U.S. intelligence circulating in Congress reportedly indicates that Russia is developing an anti-satellite weapon in space with a nuclear component.

Key Points:

Fresh U.S. intelligence circulating in Congress reportedly indicates that Russia is developing an anti-satellite weapon in space with a nuclear component.
Others suspect a weapon that is nuclear-powered but not a nuclear warhead.
Relations between the United States and Russia are at their lowest in decades, and Russia is currently waging a war of aggression in Ukraine.
This list includes Russia, the U.S., China and India, although none currently field weapons in space.

Cold War schemes

The recent revelations about Russian space weapons raise the specter that countries may decide to deploy nuclear weapons in space at some point. Some have tried before. The U.S. and Soviet Union researched nuclear detonations in space during the Cold War. In the late 1960s, the Soviets tested a missile that could be placed in low Earth orbit and be capable of coming out of orbit and carrying a nuclear warhead to Earth.

Moscow and Washington negotiated these treaties to contain the Cold War arms race.
These treaties constrained behavior in the late Cold War.

Nukes in space

But why would a country want space nukes?
In theory, weapons from space could avoid early detection radars and missile defenses.
However, there are significant disadvantages to firing nuclear weapons directly from space.

Satellite killers

Both precision-strike weapons and ground-based forces rely on satellite constellations like GPS or the Russian GLONASS system to find and reach targets.
Countries may also want the ability to destroy an enemy’s space weapons, including space-based missile defenses.
Nuclear weapons damage satellites because of a wave of gamma radiation that is created by a nuclear detonation.
This radiation damages critical subsystems within a satellite.

New arms race?

While there is not a universally accepted definition of strategic stability, scholars frequently define it as a combination of crisis stability, based on the risk of nuclear escalation during a military crisis, and arms race stability – when countries can avoid actions and reactions that spiral into a costly and dangerous arms race.
Space-based nuclear weapons increase the risk that a country would resort to nuclear weapons during a crisis.
Placing nuclear weapons in space could spark a new arms race.
Escalatory pressures and the threat of an arms race exist even if the first mover places weapons in space defensively.

Spenser A. Warren does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

In Gaza, the underground war between Israeli troops and Hamas fighters in the tunnels is set to begin

Retrieved on:

星期三, 十一月 8, 2023

When that happens, Israeli troops will begin a dangerous new phase of the military campaign against Hamas fighters in a densely populated urban terrain that includes closely packed buildings above ground and a troubling maze of tunnels below.

Key Points:

When that happens, Israeli troops will begin a dangerous new phase of the military campaign against Hamas fighters in a densely populated urban terrain that includes closely packed buildings above ground and a troubling maze of tunnels below.
But on Oct. 29, 2023, the Israel Defense Forces said its troops had attacked Hamas gunmen in a tunnel and killed Hamas fighters who emerged from a tunnel to attack their positions in northwest Gaza.
And on Nov. 5, 2023, Israel reported that three Hamas fighters emerged from a hidden tunnel and ambushed Israeli troops behind what its forces had thought were the front lines.

Hamas plans a trap below ground

From news reports, researchers and both Israeli and Hamas sources, it seems clear that Hamas has systematically built a complex underground city fortified with strong defenses beneath Gaza.
Hamas fighters have reportedly lined the tunnels with transport rails to move rockets to locations where they can be launched from firing pads concealed by trap doors.
Even if only some of those claims are true, it is clear that Hamas has built a formidable subterranean fortress beneath Gaza City that is meant to be a trap for the Israelis as well as a refuge for Hamas.

Israel’s plans to defeat the tunnel fortress

In 2013, for example, Israeli troops unearthed a particularly large invasion tunnel that began nearly three-quarters of a mile (1 km) inside the Gaza border, and was 72 feet (22 meters) deep.
It burrowed under the border wall and was detected nearly 60 feet (18 meters) below the surface 1,000 feet (300 meters) inside Israel.
In 2014, Israeli troops fought underground during a 51-day ground invasion of Gaza waged to destroy some of the tunnels.
During that campaign, Israeli troops were surprised by the requirements of tunnel warfare, according to an analysis by the Rand Corporation think tank.
The Samur unit has been working for years to develop sensors that can detect underground tunnels, booby traps and explosives.

Brian Glyn Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Russia's decision to ditch cold war arms limitation treaty raises tensions with Nato

Retrieved on:

星期三, 十一月 8, 2023

It added that the admission of Finland into Nato and Sweden’s application meant the treaty was dead.

Key Points:

It added that the admission of Finland into Nato and Sweden’s application meant the treaty was dead.
The CFE treaty had aimed to reduce the opportunity for either side to launch a rapid offensive against the other.
In fact, the US never ratified the treaty and Moscow and Washington have exchanged angry words, each accusing the other of undermining the NTBT.
This has helped nobody – activity in both the US and Russia has escalated tensions over nuclear testing.

Aggressive stance

Moscow’s increasingly aggressive stance will certainly add to concerns for the Baltic states and Poland.
With a significant number of ethnic Russians as part of their populations, the risks of civil unrest leading to an escalation is rather high.

But the Russians would need to be more competent and capable in their military adventures than they have been shown to be in Ukraine.
The likelihood of a Russian attack is small, but Putin likes to keep his options open.
He is also an experienced propagandist and will use whatever levers he has to try and prise Nato’s members apart.

Kenton White does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Do 'sputnik moments' spur educational reform? A rhetoric scholar weighs in

Retrieved on:

星期二, 十月 3, 2023

From the publication of the landmark A Nation at Risk report on education in 1983 to the polarizing election of Donald Trump, one moment after another has been compared to the sputnik episode.

Key Points:

From the publication of the landmark A Nation at Risk report on education in 1983 to the polarizing election of Donald Trump, one moment after another has been compared to the sputnik episode.
As a professor who studies the rhetoric of education reform, I know that what politicians and others call sputnik moments do not always live up to that name.
Some sputnik moments spark enduring public debates, while others are easily forgotten.

American education called into question

In the spring of 1958, Life magazine ran a series of articles entitled: “Crisis in Education.” One Life article compared the rigor of U.S. education unfavorably with that of the Soviets.
Another Life article referred to American education as a “carnival.” President Dwight Eisenhower read the Life articles and began advocating for what would become the National Defense Education Act of 1958.
It was a first-of-its-kind intervention in education policy and funding.
Ever since, pivotal events for education in the U.S. have been called sputnik moments.

Reagan and a flailing education system

In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education published A Nation at Risk.
We responded by making math, science, and engineering education a priority.” Reagan cited NASA’s space shuttle program as evidence that the nation had succeeded.
But like sputnik, it spurred decades of discussion about the rigor of public education in the U.S.

Obama on competition with China

Obama needed to sell his proposal to the nation and to the House of Representatives, which the Republicans had taken control of in the 2010 midterm elections.
It also did not result in the creation of an Advanced Research Projects Agency for education.

Donald Trump’s election

Sure enough, Trump’s election did revitalize the national discussion of civic education.
There was also the Civic Learning for a Democracy in Crisis by the Hastings Center.
Even the Trump administration joined in the conversation with its 1776 report, which called for a patriotic form of civic education.

Why do we have sputnik moments?

Sputnik moments can be spontaneous or constructed through rhetoric after the fact, or they can fall somewhere in between.
In the late 1950s, critics of American education made the most of their moment by demanding a greater emphasis on math, science and language.
Because they capitalized on their moment, policymakers and education reformers have continued to be vigilant for more moments like sputnik ever since.

Long Island University's Society of Presidential Descendants Announce Book Award Finalists

Retrieved on:

星期二, 十月 3, 2023

The prestigious award -- which will be presented at an October 14 ceremony in Washington, DC -- recognizes literary excellence and scholarship on the subject of presidential leadership, strategies and policies which have shaped United States history.

Key Points:

Biennial Event Recognizes Outstanding Works on Presidential Leadership to Encourage Civic Education and Involvement; Winner to be Announced October 14
BROOKVILLE, N.Y., Oct. 3, 2023 /PRNewswire/ -- The Society of Presidential Descendants, housed at The Roosevelt School at Long Island University and dedicated to promoting civic education and involvement, today announced the three finalists for its Biennial Presidential Leadership Book Award.
"The Biennial Presidential Leadership Book Award was established to recognize outstanding literature dedicated to understanding these critical moments which shaped our nation."
The Roosevelt School and the Society of Presidential Descendants are two important components of Long Island University's challenge to prepare the world leaders of tomorrow through education and engagement."
The Society of Presidential Descendants are all direct descendants of United States presidents who united to offer a contemporary educational platform that highlights the present-day relevance of historic presidential leadership.

Canada's House speaker quits: What the Hunka scandal reveals about Second World War complexities

Retrieved on:

星期二, 九月 26, 2023

Hunka, now 98, served in a Nazi unit known as the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS, fighting alongside Germany in the Second World War.

Key Points:

Hunka, now 98, served in a Nazi unit known as the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS, fighting alongside Germany in the Second World War.
Jewish organizations and Poland demanded an apology from the Canadian government and Poland says it’s taking steps to extradite Hunka.

The unit’s history

It also shows the close ties between the conflict and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.
The Germans initially deployed the unit to fight the advancing Soviet army, which was moving westward.
Local Ukrainians were divided over its formation, some considering it mere “cannon fodder” for the German army.

Cleared of war crimes

The history of the SS Division and the arrival of some of its members in Canada was featured in the Deschenes Commission Report of 1985-86, which cleared most soldiers of war crimes.
In Russia, there is an investigation into the “genocide of Russians” during the Second World War.
One such transgressor is imprisoned opposition leader Alexei Navalny — vilified for “insulting” a Second World War veteran — but the list is a very long one.

Ammunition to Russia

Russia seeks evidence in western countries that justifies its propaganda, and Canadian Parliament has provided it with much-needed ammunition for a tired and erroneous argument.
Firstly, the murders of Ukrainian Jews during the Second World War must be remembered, and the complex context of Ukraine during the Second World War must be clarified.
In response, many Ukrainians in Poland abandoned democratic politics in the 1930s and joined extreme nationalist formations.

Ukraine more democratic than Russia

Ukraine is far more democratic than Russia.
There are far more neo-Nazis in Russia than in Ukraine.
So, Russia must return over and over to the Great Patriotic War to justify its argument — that Russia “saved” Europe and democracy.
Accuracy about the Second World War can dispel Russian myth-making and expose its current imperialistic and savage war aims in Ukraine.

From Oppenheimer to Milton Friedman: how the Cold War battle of economic ideas shaped our world

Retrieved on:

星期三, 八月 9, 2023

Is Oppenheimer a movie for our time, reminding us of the tensions, dangers and conflicts of the old Cold War while a new one threatens to break out?

Key Points:

Is Oppenheimer a movie for our time, reminding us of the tensions, dangers and conflicts of the old Cold War while a new one threatens to break out?
But the Cold War did not just rest on the threat of the bomb.
Von Neumann also developed the computer architecture on the EDVAC machine that allowed simulations of these nuclear and economic “games”.

Spies and ideologies

He survived the siege of Leningrad and invented linear programming to help Soviet factories build wartime planes more efficiently.
But he found himself assigned to the ENORMOZ project, the desperate Soviet race to build their own atomic bomb.
But it failed when faced with the more sophisticated civilian demands later in the Cold War.

Academic warfare

But some of the most brutal arguments took place in the hallowed halls of academia.
Fascinated by the possibility of computers helping direct an economy, Oscar Lange wrote just before his death:
So what’s the trouble?
Let us put the simultaneous equations on an electronic computer and we shall obtain the solution in less than a second.

Computers and coups

In Santiago he built a futuristic control centre: a ring of armchairs with controls, monitors and a software system named Cybersyn.
Allende had nationalised 500 businesses and he linked them up to the control centre by fax machine (ironically, using the wired network of the CIA-influenced ITT company).
Each day, the controllers would fax orders to the factories and receive information on shortages and gluts.
Despite all the geopolitical tensions, economists today can at least argue in a far less hostile environment.

Why American culture fixates on the tragic image of J. Robert Oppenheimer, the most famous man behind the atomic bomb

Retrieved on:

星期二, 八月 1, 2023

Oppenheimer had many achievements in theoretical physics but is remembered as the so-called father of the atomic bomb.

Key Points:

Oppenheimer had many achievements in theoretical physics but is remembered as the so-called father of the atomic bomb.
But he conveyed a sense of anguish – scripting his own tragic role, as I argue in my book about him.
“The physicists have known sin,” he remarked two years after the attacks, “and this is a knowledge which they cannot lose.”

‘Batter my heart’

As physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi later said, the bomb “treated humans as matter,” nothing more.
But Oppenheimer pointedly used religious language when talking about the project, as if to underscore the weight of its significance.
The atomic bomb was first tested in the early morning of July 16, 1945, in the arid basin of southern New Mexico.
Mathematician John von Neumann acerbically observed, “Some people profess guilt to claim credit for the sin.”

Describing the indescribable

On Aug. 6 and Aug. 9, these cities suddenly ceased to be.
Robert J. Lifton, an expert on the psychology of war, violence and trauma, called the Hiroshima survivors’ experience “death in life,” an encounter with the indescribable.
When it comes to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, he chooses to represent the attack without portraying it.

The bomb to end all wars?

After the end of the war, many of the scientists who had worked on the Manhattan Project sought to emphasize that the atomic bomb was not just another weapon.
Among them, Oppenheimer carried the most authority as a result of his leadership of Los Alamos and his oratorical gifts.
The form it ultimately took, known as the Baruch Plan, was rejected by the Soviet Union.
Rather than seeing the bomb as the weapon to end all wars, the U.S. military seemed to treat it as its trump card.
The era of mutual assured destruction, when a nuclear attack would be certain to annihilate both superpowers, had begun.

How the Soviets stole nuclear secrets and targeted Oppenheimer, the 'father of the atomic bomb'

Retrieved on:

星期一, 七月 24, 2023

The issues that Nolan depicts are not relics of a distant past.

Key Points:

The issues that Nolan depicts are not relics of a distant past.
The new world that Oppenheimer helped to create, and the nuclear nightmare he feared, still exists today.
Russian President Vladimir Putin is threatening to use nuclear weapons in his war in Ukraine.
Declassified records reveal that Soviet spying on the U.S. atomic bomb effort advanced Moscow’s bomb program, but Oppenheimer was no spy.

Oppenheimer’s perspective

Oppenheimer joined the Manhattan Project, a nationwide effort to build an atomic bomb before the Nazis developed one, in 1942.
In 1954, at the height of the McCarthy era, Oppenheimer was accused of being a communist and even a Soviet spy.
Oppenheimer saw communism as the best defense against the rise of fascism in Europe, which, being of Jewish heritage, was personal for him.

Russian overtures

But being targeted and cultivated for recruitment is not the same as being a recruited spy.
Oppenheimer rejected the approach, but for reasons that remain unclear, he did not inform authorities for several months.
Archives made available after the Soviet Union’s collapse now establish beyond doubt that Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent.

All the Kremlin’s men

“Oppenheimer” focuses on Klaus Fuchs, a brilliant theoretical physicist who fled from Nazi Germany to Britain and became a British naturalized subject.
General Leslie Groves, the military commander of the Manhattan Project, later blamed the British for failing to identify Fuchs as a Soviet spy.
Other Soviet spies, like the British scientist Alan Nunn May, worked in other parts of the Manhattan Project.
These men had multiple motives for betraying U.S. atomic secrets.
By the end of World War II, Stalin’s spies had delivered the secrets of the atomic bomb to the Kremlin.

New targets

Today, the world stands at the edge of technological revolutions that will transform societies in the 21st century, much as nuclear weapons did in the 20th century: artificial intelligence, quantum computing and biological engineering.
Watching “Oppenheimer” makes me wonder whether hostile foreign governments may already have stolen keys to unlocking these new technologies, in the same way the Soviets did with the atom bomb.